Researching Adult and Vocational Education (RAVE)

Professor Annette Foley (Convenor)
Associate Professor Peter Fieger
Associate Professor Sharon McDonough
Anthony Pearce
Paschal Somers
Liam Frost Camilleri

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith
Emeritus Professor Andy Smith  
Honorary Professor Barry Golding

This project responds to the lack of research and evaluation on the delivery of the revised Certificate IV in Training and Assessment, the basic qualification for VET teachers and trainers, approved at the end of 2022. There is no longer a Skills Council responsible for this qualification or others in the Training and Education (TAE) Training Package. There were 40,000 enrolments in 2024 and its quality remains fundamental to the VET system.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith
Professor Annette Foley
Dr Daryl South (Charles Sturt University)

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• How are VET teacher-educators delivering the revised Certificate IV in Training and Assessment (TAE40122), particularly the new and updated components?
• What are participants’ views on the effectiveness of the revised qualification, especially the changes?
• What challenges have been encountered, and how could they be addressed?

Methodology

• Contributions were gathered through a workshop at the 2025 Australian Council of Deans of Education (ACDEVEG) conference in Brisbane, with 25 participants.
• Interviews were conducted in February 2026 with three senior VET figures (two leading teams delivering the Certificate IV, and one closely involved in redeveloping the TAE Training Package).
• A survey is being administered to approximately 100 members of the Victorian-based VET Practitioners Network who deliver the Certificate IV.
• The research team will also analyse suggestions for improving the Certificate IV from a 2023 RAVE study, ‘VET teachers’ motivations to enter and remain in VET teaching’, and compare these with changes in the revised qualification.

Research findings

Research findings will be provided to the Department of Employment and Workplace Relations and Jobs and Skills Australia.

This project builds on earlier research conducted in 2005, exploring the publication practices and perspectives of highly productive academics. The 2025 study revisits a regional university cohort to examine how academic publishing has evolved over two decades, including changing approaches to measuring research outputs and the increasing use of online submission and peer review systems.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith
Emeritus Professor Andy Smith
Dr Kate Smithers (Charles Sturt University)

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• What are the publication practices of high-productivity academics?
• What are their views on how publication outputs are measured?
• How do these practices and views compare with those of a similar cohort two decades earlier?
• What are their experiences with peer review and publisher production processes?

Methodology

An online survey was distributed by the research office of the university originally studied in 2005 to its top 20 publishers, followed by the next 20 to increase responses. Responses are being analysed and compared with the 2005 cohort to identify changes over time.

Research findings

Findings will be shared through conference presentations and journal articles.

This funded project involved a four-phase review of procurement and contract management training for the Federal Department of Finance. The work focused on applying best practice adult education approaches to improve course design, delivery and evaluation across a suite of professional learning programs.

Research team

Professor Annette Foley
Associate Professor Peter Fieger
Dr Stuart Levy

For more information, contact Professor Annette Foley at a.foley@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• How can procurement training better reflect best practice adult learning principles?
• How can course materials be aligned with the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) and APS standards?
• How effective are current training approaches, content and delivery models?
• How can evaluation methods better measure the impact and effectiveness of training?

Methodology

The project was delivered in five phases.

1. Identification of best practice approaches for large-scale capability uplift activities for professional adult audiences, including mapping adult learning theories, teaching practices and learning styles.
2. Development of a mapping methodology to align course materials with learning outcomes, skills and knowledge, incorporating AQF and APS standards, as well as principles of heutagogy and constructivist theory.
3. Review of the Commonwealth Procurement and Contract Management Training Strategy and associated training suite to ensure alignment with contemporary adult learning theory and blended delivery models.
4. Review of selected live and eLearning courses (up to six), using the mapping tool to assess alignment with best practice principles and learning models identified in Phase 1.
5. Review of course evaluation surveys and development of improved tools to measure learner satisfaction and the effectiveness of knowledge and skill development.

Research findings

The project delivered a structured framework for improving training design, alignment and evaluation, supporting more effective and consistent professional learning across procurement and contract management programs.

This project explored how ‘industry’ is defined and engaged within vocational education and training (VET). It examined the limitations of current approaches and considered how more effective and balanced partnerships between VET and industry could be developed.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith
Paschal Somers

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• How is ‘industry’ currently defined and conceptualised within VET systems?
• What roles does industry play in shaping teaching and learning?
• How can industry and VET work together more effectively as partners?
• What models of industry engagement could be applied in Australian and Victorian contexts?

Methodology

This desk-based research project used five approaches:

1. Review of academic literature
2. Review of grey literature, including case studies and models
3. Analysis of Australian case studies and models
4. Review of Skills Councils and other forms of high-level industry involvement, drawing on international and Australian data
5. Analysis of local-level VET curriculum and teaching collaboration

Research findings

The project has now concluded. Findings contribute to a more nuanced understanding of how industry engagement in VET can move beyond narrow definitions towards more balanced and effective partnerships.

Research outputs include a project report available via the AVETRA website. Findings from the project were also presented at conference presentations delivered in 2024 at NCVER’s ‘No Frills’ conference in Perth and the UALL/SCUTREA conference in London.

This project explores the role of adult community education (ACE) in supporting diverse learners across Australia. Recognised as Australia’s fourth education sector, ACE provides flexible learning opportunities for people who may be underserved by formal education, including older learners, early school leavers and those from non-English speaking backgrounds.

Research team

Professor Annette Foley
Associate Professor Tracy Ollis (Deakin University)

For more information, contact Professor Annette Foley at a.foley@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• How effective are pre-accredited and accredited ACE programs in supporting pathways to work and further education?
• What role does ACE play in supporting learners with complex educational backgrounds?
• How does ACE contribute to broader outcomes such as wellbeing, health and social connection?

Methodology

This mixed-methods research examines adult learning in ACE settings across Victoria and Tasmania, focusing on completion rates and learner outcomes. It draws on national policy context, including skills shortages and workforce development priorities, alongside analysis of program participation and impact.

Research findings

The project will provide insights into the effectiveness and value of ACE programs in supporting both employment and broader life outcomes. Findings will highlight the critical role of ACE in Australia’s education and skills system, particularly for learners who may not engage with traditional pathways.

This project responds to growing concern about shortages in the VET teaching workforce in Australia and internationally. Despite ongoing debate, there has been limited research into why people enter VET teaching and what influences their decision to remain in the profession.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith
Professor Annette Foley
Dr Daryl South (Charles Sturt University)

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• What motivates individuals to enter the VET teaching profession?
• What barriers and facilitators influence entry into the profession?
• What factors affect decisions to remain in VET teaching?

Methodology

The project used an online survey of VET teacher‑education students at Federation University and Charles Sturt University, including those enrolled in 2023 and those who completed their studies in 2021 and 2022.

The survey collected both quantitative and qualitative data, including insights into motivations for entering the profession, comparisons between industry and teaching pay, and factors influencing retention. It drew on established research as well as the research team’s experience in VET teacher education.

The survey was administered between June and August 2023, with 146 valid responses. Respondents were well distributed across age groups, experience levels and teaching disciplines, with most working in TAFE.

Research findings

Findings from the study have informed Commonwealth government initiatives related to the VET workforce. Presentations on entry motivations and retention factors were delivered at the ACDEVEG conferences in 2023 and 2024.

Survey questions (PDF 268 KB) and quantitative results (PDF 396 KB) are available for reference. To use the survey questions for research purposes, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

This project examined how the COVID‑19 pandemic impacted the work of VET teachers across Australia, including rapid transitions to online delivery and changes to teaching practice.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith
Dr Daryl South (Charles Sturt University)

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• How did VET teachers’ work change during 2020 as a result of COVID‑19?
• What did teachers learn from the shift to online delivery?
• How might teaching practices change in the future as a result of these experiences?

Methodology

The project involved an online survey of VET teacher‑education students at two universities who were working as VET teachers in TAFE or other Registered Training Organisations. Participants were drawn from students enrolled in 2020 and 2021 who had been teaching at the onset of the pandemic in March 2020.

The survey was administered in August 2021 and received 73 responses. It explored teachers’ experiences of transitioning to online learning, including the platforms and methods used, and how students responded to these changes.

Research findings

Findings highlighted significant shifts in teaching practice, with most participants moving from on-campus to online delivery. The wide range of industry areas represented provided diverse insights into the challenges and opportunities of remote teaching in VET.

Preliminary results were presented at the ACDEVEG conference in 2021 and the NCVER conference in 2022, with further analysis ongoing.

This project explored how Australians learned about and responded to information during the COVID‑19 pandemic, focusing on key areas such as health guidance, movement restrictions, global developments and financial supports. At the time, there was little published research on how people were learning in this rapidly changing context.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith
Morgan Wise

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• How did Australians access and understand information during the COVID‑19 pandemic?
• What types of learning occurred in response to health, social and economic changes?
• How did learning needs evolve as the pandemic progressed?

Methodology

The project used an online survey conducted in mid‑2020 (PDF 277 KB), building on the earlier ‘Learning to be Greener’ research model. It examined how people engaged with information across multiple domains, including health, restrictions, global developments and financial matters.

A follow‑up survey in 2021 (PDF 187 KB) expanded the research to include vaccination and international travel. More than 100 responses were collected, and the two datasets are being analysed together.

Research findings

Initial findings were shared through Federation University’s Newsroom and published in Research Today (October 2020). The study provides insights into how people learn and adapt during times of rapid change, with relevance for future public communication and education strategies.

This project explored how perceptions of retail and hospitality careers influence participation, progression and workforce development. Despite employing around 20 per cent of the Australian workforce, these sectors are often seen as low status, limiting how people view them as long‑term career pathways.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith (Project lead)
Emeritus Professor Andy Smith
Professor Richard Robinson (University of Queensland)
Professor Victor Callan (University of Queensland)
Associate Professor Darryn Snell (RMIT University)
Antonella Sterrantino (SkillsIQ)
Silvia Munoz (SkillsIQ)

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• Why are retail and hospitality careers perceived as low status?
• How do these perceptions affect career choices and workforce participation?
• What career pathways exist within these industries?
• What strategies can improve visibility and attractiveness of these careers?

Methodology

The project was conducted between 2021 and 2022 and delivered in four phases.

1. Analysis of publicly available datasets (including ABS and ‘On Track’) and re-analysis of data from previous RAVE projects
2. Interviews with industry stakeholders, company case studies, and a survey of careers advisers
3. Focus groups with students and surveys of the general public, alongside international comparisons with Germany and Switzerland
4. Integration of findings across all phases, validation with industry experts, and development of targeted resources for stakeholders

Research findings

The project identified key factors shaping perceptions of retail and hospitality work and highlighted opportunities to strengthen career pathways and improve workforce attraction and retention.

Outputs include a project report (PDF 1.6 MB), conference presentations, and papers in Research Today 2021 (PDF 228 KB) and Research Today 2023 (PDF 3.99 MB).

A compendium of ‘at a glance’ advice leaflets (PDF 553 KB) is also available and may be adapted for use with appropriate acknowledgement of the project.

This project explored how Australian adults learn about changes in recycling and waste practices, and how these changes influence everyday behaviour. It focused on the significant shifts in plastic use and recycling introduced across Australia in 2018 and how people adapted to them.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith (Project lead)
Professor Annette Foley
Morgan Wise

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• How do people learn about changes in environmental practices such as recycling and waste reduction?
• How do these learning processes influence behaviour change?
• What sources of information support or shape these changes?

Methodology

This pilot project used a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches. It began with an initial focus group and expert interview, followed by an analysis of publicly available educational materials related to recycling and waste practices. An online survey was then conducted with approximately 1,500 adults working across several campuses of a regional university to explore how individuals learned about these changes and adapted their behaviour. The project also builds on earlier RAVE research, including the 2009 ‘Learning to be drier’ study, which examined how communities responded to environmental change.

Research findings

The project provided insights into how people learn and adapt to environmental policy changes in everyday life. Findings were presented at the SCUTREA conference in the UK in 2019.

This project examined how young people in rural, regional and peri‑urban areas navigate decisions about education, training and employment after school. It explored the challenges they face, the influences on their choices, and how communities and institutions can better support their post‑school pathways.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith (Project lead)
Professor Annette Foley
with assistance from Helen Weadon and Tim Harrison

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• How do young people navigate decisions related to post‑school education, training and work?
• Who are the key influencers, and how do they shape decision‑making?
• What changes could improve post‑school outcomes for more young people?
• How can communities and employers better support and utilise young people’s talents?

Methodology

This project was conducted across six communities in Victoria and built on earlier pilot work in Western Victoria. It used a multi‑stage qualitative and quantitative approach, including interviews with community stakeholders who work with young people, interviews with school staff, focus groups with Year 11 and 12 students, and interviews with young people who had recently left school. These data were complemented by analysis of ‘On Track’ data to provide broader insights into post‑school destinations and outcomes. The research fieldwork concluded in May 2019, with ongoing analysis and feedback to participating communities.

Research findings

The project identified key factors influencing young people’s post‑school decisions and developed practical models to support better outcomes. It generated ten key findings and twelve targeted suggestions, alongside recommendations for schools, community organisations, employers, tertiary providers, families and governments.

An overview of the findings was published in Research Today (April 2020), and an executive summary (PDF 285 KB) is available.

This project explored how VET teachers use teaching practices and pedagogies to engage young people who have left school early. It focused on how adult learning approaches can support re‑engagement and improve educational pathways for this group within a regional TAFE setting.

Research team

Professor Annette Foley

For more information, contact Professor Annette Foley at a.foley@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• What teaching strategies do VET teachers use to engage early school leavers?
• What pedagogies are used in pathways and re‑engagement programs?
• How do these approaches support student engagement and participation?
• What are the aspirations and future plans of young people in these programs?

Methodology

This qualitative study used a single case study approach within an early school leaver program at a regional TAFE institute in Victoria. Data were collected through semi‑structured face‑to‑face interviews with seven TAFE teachers, alongside two focus groups with students (eight and ten participants respectively). The research explored both teaching practices and student experiences to develop a deeper understanding of engagement in these programs.

Research findings

The project highlights the important role of tailored pedagogies and supportive learning environments in re‑engaging early school leavers. Findings contribute to improved understanding of how VET programs can support young people to reconnect with education, training and future employment pathways.

This project examined the broader impacts of men’s shed participation by exploring the experiences of partners and carers. While previous research has highlighted the benefits of men’s sheds for participants, this study focused on understanding how these benefits extend to those close to them, including changes in relationships, wellbeing and social connection.

Research team

Professor Annette Foley
Honorary Professor Barry Golding
Helen Weadon

For more information, contact Professor Annette Foley at a.foley@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• What benefits do partners experience when men attend men’s sheds?
• How do men’s shed participation impact relationships with partners or carers?
• Are there health and wellbeing benefits for both partners and participants?
• What social and learning opportunities emerge for partners?
• How does men’s participation in external social networks affect partners’ lives?

Methodology

This qualitative study collected data through 17 semi‑structured face‑to‑face interviews with partners or carers of men attending sheds in Ballarat and surrounding areas. In addition, focus groups were conducted with men across six sheds in the region to provide complementary perspectives on participation and its broader impacts.

Research findings

The project provides new insights into the wider social, relational and wellbeing benefits of men’s sheds, highlighting their impact beyond individual participants. Findings contribute to a more holistic understanding of the role of men’s sheds in supporting communities and social connections.

This project examined the VET teaching workforce in Australia for the Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training (KRIVET), with a focus on adult education and training contexts rather than school‑based VET. It analysed workforce conditions, qualifications and career structures to better understand the role and development of VET teachers.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• What are the working conditions of VET teachers, including wages and working hours, compared with other occupations?
• What qualifications and professional development opportunities are available to VET teachers?
• How are career development, guidance and progression managed within the VET teaching workforce?

Methodology

The project involved analysis of existing research data alongside a review of government policies and reports relating to the VET teaching workforce. It focused on vocational education for adults and disadvantaged groups, drawing together evidence to build a comprehensive picture of workforce conditions and career structures.

Research findings

The project provides an overview of key issues and trends affecting the VET teaching workforce in Australia, supporting international comparison and policy development. Download the final report (PDF 774 KB).

This group of projects explores apprenticeship systems internationally, with a focus on policy, practice and workforce development. Led by Emeritus Professor Erica Smith, the work examines how apprenticeships are designed, delivered and supported across different national contexts.

International Labour Organization (ILO) projects (2017–2021)

Erica Smith led a series of projects for the International Labour Organization (ILO), a United Nations agency, between 2017 and 2021. These projects explored the role of intermediary organisations in apprenticeship systems, the development of apprenticeship models in countries such as Indonesia, and the ways apprenticeships can support youth employment and inclusive growth across different regions. The research combined literature reviews, policy analysis, international surveys and stakeholder interviews, drawing on engagement with government, industry and union representatives across multiple countries.

Key contributions included work on the role of intermediary organisations in apprenticeship systems, development of a revised apprenticeship model for Indonesia, analysis of apprenticeship policy across G20 countries, and research into improving the attractiveness of apprenticeships. This work formed part of broader international initiatives led by the ILO, including the Apprenticeships Development for Universal Lifelong Learning and Training (ADULT) project.

Findings from these projects informed international policy discussions and contributed to global research on apprenticeship systems. Erica Smith also delivered a keynote at the International Conference on Innovations in Apprenticeships in Geneva in July 2018.

This project examined how and why employers engage in training and their relationships with the vocational education and training (VET) sector. It responded to significant economic and policy shifts, including industry restructuring, globalisation and changes to training funding and delivery. The study focused on understanding how these changes have shaped employer behaviour and how partnerships between employers and training providers can be strengthened.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Research questions

• How do employers engage with training in a changing economic and policy environment?
• What influences employers’ decisions to participate in formal VET?
• How have employer training practices changed over time?
• How can partnerships between employers and training providers be strengthened?

Methodology

This project was conducted as a national research study funded by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER). It involved analysis of employer training practices using a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches, including engagement with employers and training providers, and examination of policy and economic changes affecting the VET system.

Research findings

The project provides an updated understanding of employer training practices in Australia, highlighting shifts in how employers engage with training and the VET sector. Findings emphasise the importance of strong partnerships between employers and training providers and identify opportunities to support more effective collaboration.

Outputs include a final report and a good practice guide. Research findings were also presented at an NCVER‑organised webinar that included some of the participating employers and training providers.

This Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage project examined whether and how higher‑level qualifications for vocational education and training (VET) teachers contribute to improving quality in the VET system. It responded to ongoing concerns about quality in VET and the lack of strong evidence linking teacher qualifications to teaching effectiveness and student outcomes.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith 
Dr Jacqueline Tuck (Open University)
Professor Keiko Yasukawa (University of Technology Sydney)
Emeritus Professor Roger Harris (Adelaide University)

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Industry partners

TAFE Queensland
Australian Council for Private Education and Training (ACPET)
National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER)
VET Development Centre
Federation Training

Research questions

• What differences do VET teachers’ qualification levels make to their teaching approaches and practices?
• How do qualifications influence teachers’ ability to work across diverse learners and training contexts?
• How do qualification levels affect engagement in professional development?
• How do more highly qualified VET teachers contribute to improved quality in the VET system, and what factors enable or constrain this?

Methodology

This national study combined qualitative and quantitative research across public and private Registered Training Organisations (RTOs). It included interviews with stakeholders, focus groups with teachers and students, and a large‑scale national survey examining teaching practices and professional development. Detailed case studies were conducted across multiple RTOs to explore how qualifications influence teaching quality and career progression. The project also included further analysis of professional development participation and a ‘Delphi’ process involving national experts and RTO leaders to examine policy implications.

Research findings

The project provides important evidence on the relationship between teacher qualifications and quality in the VET system, helping to address a previously identified gap in policy and research. Findings highlight the role of qualifications in shaping teaching practice, professional development engagement and the capacity of teachers to navigate complex learning environments.

Research outputs include an executive summary (PDF 199 KB), findings from the first two surveys (PDF 519 KB), and the seven key findings (PDF 136 KB).

Download a list of publications and conference papers from the project (PDF 269 KB).

This Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage project (2011–2014) examined how skill is recognised and valued in occupations commonly labelled as ‘low skilled’. Working with industry partners, the project investigated how these labels can obscure the complexity of work and affect policy, training and workforce development across industries.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith
Emeritus Professor Andy Smith 
Associate Professor Ian Hampson (University of New South Wales)
Associate Professor Anne Junor (University of New South Wales)

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Industry partners

Service Skills Australia
Manufacturing Skills Australia
United Voice

Research questions

• How can skill be better identified and recognised in occupations often labelled as low skilled?
• What are the impacts of under‑recognising skill on policy and workplace practice?
• How can training packages and qualifications better reflect the skills required in these occupations?
• What changes are needed to improve recognition of skill across industries?

Methodology

This multi‑phase study combined qualitative research, industry consultation and policy analysis. It involved interviews with senior stakeholders in the VET and industrial relations systems, followed by interviews with industry representatives across service and manufacturing sectors. Detailed company‑level case studies and worker interviews were conducted across nine occupations, including roles such as retail assistants, cleaners, chefs and manufacturing workers. Findings were analysed and validated with industry stakeholders, and compared against existing Training Package qualifications to assess alignment.

Research findings

The project demonstrated that many roles considered ‘low skilled’ involve significant levels of expertise, knowledge and judgement that are often overlooked. Findings highlighted the need to better recognise and represent skill in policy, training frameworks and workplace practices.

The research provided evidence to inform improvements to government policy, vocational qualifications and workplace training practices. It also highlighted the potential for better recognition of skill to improve individuals’ career opportunities and confidence in the labour market.

Research outputs include a summary report commissioned by Manufacturing Skills Australia (PDF 360 KB). 

The project has also informed a number of submissions to national VET processes, including:

• response to the paper ‘Industry engagement in Training Package Development’ (PDF 231 KB)
• response to the discussion paper ‘Review of Training Packages and Accredited Courses’ (PDF 290 KB)
• a submission to the review of Security qualifications by the Property Services Industry Reference Committee (PDF 278 KB)

This Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage project (2012–2014) investigated how qualifications delivered within enterprises contribute to workforce skills, organisational capability and broader economic outcomes. It focused on Enterprise Registered Training Organisations (Enterprise RTOs), which deliver accredited training directly to their own employees.

Research team

Emeritus Professor Erica Smith
Emeritus Professor Andy Smith 
Dr Arlene Walker (Deakin University)

For more information, contact Emeritus Professor Erica Smith at e.smith@federation.edu.au.

Industry partners

Enterprise Registered Training Organisation Association (ERTOA)
Abigroup
DP World
Foxtel
NSW Rural Fire Service
Queensland Rail
State Transit NSW
Uniting Community Care
Western Health

Research questions

• What are the benefits and challenges for companies that deliver qualifications through Enterprise RTOs?
• What are the benefits and challenges for workers undertaking enterprise-based training?
• How do workplace-delivered qualifications compare with those delivered in educational institutions?
• What can Enterprise RTOs tell us about alternative models of vocational education and training?

Methodology

This national study used a multi‑phase mixed-methods approach centred on Enterprise RTOs. It began with a preliminary survey across Enterprise RTOs, followed by detailed case studies in eight organisations, including interviews with both employers and Registered Training Organisations delivering similar qualifications. Return visits to the case study sites provided deeper insights into training practices and outcomes. A follow-up survey tested emerging findings, and the results were further validated through national and international expert engagement.

Research findings

The project demonstrated that enterprise-based delivery of qualifications can play a significant role in developing workforce skills and improving organisational capability. It highlighted both the benefits and challenges of this model, particularly in relation to quality, consistency and recognition of qualifications.

Findings contribute to a better understanding of how employer-led training complements the formal VET system and provide evidence to support policy development and organisational decision-making.

Research outputs include a research report (PDF 1.15 MB) and an executive summary (PDF 321 KB).

RAVE researchers have contributed to a wide range of earlier and collaborative projects across vocational education, adult learning and workforce development. These projects have informed policy, practice and further research across the sector.

Projects from 2014 and earlier include:

• Possible futures for the Indian apprenticeship system
• Psychological contract in apprenticeships and traineeships
• Review of funding approaches on Service Skills qualifications and delivery
• Modelling learning and development practitioner needs
• Learning to be drier

For more information about RAVE's early research projects, email vet.research@federation.edu.au.

• 2025 Frost-Camilleri, L. $3000 wildcard CAUL grant to work on textbook accessibility for my OER ($3,000)
• 2024–2025 Foley, A. Fieger, P. Levy, S. Specialist Advisory Services. Department of Finance. Australian Government ($108,601)
• 2023 Smith, E. & Somers, P. Role of industry in teaching and learning. Victorian Skills Authority/AVETRA ($23,760)
• 2022 Burke, J., McLachlan, C., McCubbin, A., Foley, A., Seeman, K., Selling, P., McGraw-Pleban, A., Goriss-Hunter, A., Claughton, A., Davis, R, Holcombe, W & Robertson, D. Access Quality Teaching enhanced teacher preparation program. Department of Education and Training ($167,500)
• 2021–2022 Smith, E., Callan, V., Smith, A., Robinson, R. & Snell, D. Careers in everyday industries: Potential benefits of increased visibility, National Careers Institute Industry Partnership Grants, NCIPI000505 ($151,679 + $80,023 in-kind)
• 2021–2022 Foley, A., Ollis, T. & Rossiter, T. Pre-Accredited-Quality Framework Review. Department of Education and Training. Victoria ($98,000)
• 2021 Smith, E. Research and paper on ‘Improving the attractiveness and social perception of apprenticeships.’ International Labour Organization ($10,000 USD / $13,100 AUD)
• 2020 Smith, E. VET Teaching Workforce in Australia, Korea Research Institute for VET (KRIVET) ($2,000 USD / $3,280 AUD)
• 2018–2019 Smith, E. The role of intermediaries in apprenticeship systems. International Labour Organization ($14,000 USD / $19,663 AUD)
• 2018–2019 Smith, E., Weadon, H., Foley, A. & Harrison, T. Young futures: Education, training and employment decision-making in non-metropolitan areas. Department of Education and Training, Victoria ($50,000)
• 2018 Smith, E. Australian component of ‘Tools for quality apprenticeships’, Skills that Work project (ILO) ($3,600 USD / $4,500 AUD)
• 2018 Smith, E., Foley, A. & Weadon, H. Young futures: Education, training and employment decision-making in non-metropolitan areas. Department of Education and Training, Victoria ($50,000)
• 2017 Smith, E. & Tuck, J. Collaboration on ILO survey report of national initiatives to promote quality apprenticeships in G20 countries ($21,169 USD / $28,143 AUD)
• 2017 Smith, E. Research, Review and Development of a Revised Model of Quality Apprenticeship for Indonesia. International Labour Organization ($15,900)
• 2017 Smith, E. Research and preparation of chapter for publication on Skills and Future of Work: Strategies for Inclusive Growth in Asia and the Pacific ($3,778)
• 2017 Foley, A. McGraw-Pleban, A., Davis, R & Brandenburg, R. Teaching Performance Assessment. Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership Ltd (AITSL) ($25,000)
• 2016 Harrison, T., Roberts, S. & team. Young futures in regional towns pilot project, Faculty of Education and Arts ($6,335)
• 2015 Smith, E. ‘India’ case study on employer engagement in apprenticeships, OECD-ILO project ($6,332)
• 2014 Smith, E., Yasukawa, K., Harris, R. & Tuck, J. ARC Linkage grant LP140100044 ($120,000 + $45,000 industry funds)
• 2014 Smith, E., Callan, V., R., Smith, A. & Tuck, J. Employer training in a changed environment. NCVER nationally competitive grant ($99,600)
• 2014 Guthrie, H., Clayton, B., Karmel, T. & Smith, E. Review of funding approaches. Service Skills Victoria ($75,000 / $25,000 Fed Uni component)
• 2013 Hodge, S. & team. Satisfaction of students in VET teacher-education courses ($900)
• 2012 Smith, E., Smith, A. & Walker, A. ARC Linkage grant LP120100317 ($180,000 + $45,000 industry funds)
• 2012 Smith, E., Brennan Kemmis, R. et al. Possible futures for the Indian apprenticeship system ($66,033)
• 2012 Hodge, S., Smith, E. & Barratt-Pugh, L. Modelling learning and development practitioner needs ($22,125)
• 2012 Golding, B., Angus, L., Lavender, P & Foley, A. ‘Closing the loop’ ($30,000)
• 2011 Smith, E., Hampson, I., Junor, A. & Smith, A. ARC Linkage grant LP110200888 ($135,000 + $75,000 industry funds)
• 2010 Smith, E. & Zammit, F. Developing research infrastructure at NMIT ($13,501)
• 2010 Smith, E. & Bush, A. Is there unmet demand for apprenticeships? NCVER ($19,701)
• 2010 Smith, E. & Teicher, J. Ways of seeing – reconceptualising skills ($19,438)
• 2010 Smyth, J., McDonald, J. & Foley, A. Re-engaging disadvantaged young people with learning. ARC ($150,000)
• 2009 Smith, E., Brennan Kemmis, R., Payne, W. & Grace, L. New Deal – Workforce development ($103,590)
• 2009 Smith, E., Walker, A., Brennan Kemmis, R. & Smith, P. Psychological contract in apprenticeships. NCVER ($128,150)
• 2009 Golding, B., Foley, A., Smith, E., Brown, M., Grace, L., Angwin, J & Campbell & Schultz. Deakin University collaboration ($16,000)
• 2009 Golding, B., Foley, A., Brown, M. & Harvey, J. Men’s learning through community participation. NCVER ($60,000)
• 2009 Golding, B., Grace, L., Brown, M., Foley, A., Smith, E., Angwin, J., Blake, D. & Campbell, C. Learning to be drier ($15,000)
• 2009 Smith, E. & Brown, M. Young people’s views of the labour market ($2,000)
• 2008 Golding, B, Foley, A and Brown M. Men’s learning through Community participation in Australia. National Seniors Australia ($50,000)

Books, edited books and monographs

• Lemon, N., McDonough, S., & Selkrig, M. (Eds). (2025). Creating wellbeing: The role of making practices in academic contexts. Routledge. https://www.routledge.com/Creating-Wellbeing-The-Role-of-Making-Practices-in-Academic-Contexts/Lemon-McDonough-Selkrig/p/book/9781041123156
• Lemon, N., McDonough, S., & Selkrig, M. (Eds). (2025). The Making Academic: Perspectives on Expressive Practice and Wellbeing in Higher Education. Routledge. https://www.routledge.com/The-Making-Academic-Perspectives-on-Expressive-Practice-and-Wellbeing-in-Higher-Education/Lemon-McDonough-Selkrig/p/book/9781032971735
• Smith, E. Zhao, Z.& Foster-Camilleri, L. (Eds) (2025), Apprenticeships and Future Global trends, Proceedings of the 9th Conference of INAP (International Network on Innovative Apprenticeship), University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK, May 8th-9th. Shenzhen: Scholar Media Publishing
• Golding, B., with Willman, C. (Nov 2024) Six Peaks Speak: Unsettling Legacies in southern Dja Dja Wurrung Country, Common Ground Research Networks, Illinois, US
• McDonough, S., & Lemon, N. (Eds) (2024). Exploring Time as a Resource for Wellness in Higher Education: Identity, Self-care and Wellbeing at Work. Routledge
• Smith, E. (2022). Improving the attractiveness and social perception of apprenticeships. Geneva: International Labour Organization (ILO)
• Smith, E., Smith, A., Tuck, J. & Callan, V. (2017). Continuity and change: Employers’ use of training and partnerships with training providers. Adelaide: NCVER
• Smith, E. Gonon, P & Foley, A. (eds.) (2015) Architectures for apprenticeship: Achieving economic and social goals Australian Scholarly Publishing
• Golding, B., Brown, M., & Foley, A. (2014). Men learning through life. National Centre for Vocational Education Research
• Golding, B., Brown, M., Foley, A., Harvey, J. & Gleeson, L. (2007) Men's sheds in Australia: Learning through community contexts, NCVER, Adelaide, South Australia

Book chapters

• Smith, E. & Pearce, A. (forthcoming, 2026). The use of learning theories as an explanatory tool by teachers in the Australian Vocational Education and Training sector
• Golding, B. (forthcoming) ‘Learning on unsettled Country’, Book Chapter
• Golding, B. (forthcoming) ‘Men’s Sheds: Learning for Life’, Book Chapter
• Lemon, N., McDonough, S., & Selkirg, M. (2025) A Call for Change: Creative and Making Practices as Essential Practices to Support Wellbeing
• Lemon, N., McDonough, S., & Selkirg, M. (2025) Making as wellbeing
• Smith, E. (2024) VET teacher-education in Australia
• McDonough, S., & Lemon, N. (2024) Reconceptualising our relationship with time
• Lemon, N., & McDonough, S. (2024). Interstate dialogues
• Larsen, A., Frost-Camilleri, L. (2023). Issues and Solutions
• McDonough, S., Belton, A., Selkrig, M., & Keamy, R. K. (2023). Creative research methods
• Smith, E. (2023) Thirty years of competency-based training
• McDonough, S., & Lemon, N. (2022). Making mindful moments
• McDonough, S., & Lemon, N. (2022). Creating Care-Full Communities
• Smith, E. (2022). Australian TVET teacher training
• Foley, A. & Golding, B., (2021), Men’s Shed Research Evidence Since 2014
• Foley, A. (2021), Therapeutic Landscapes
• Golding, B., & Foley, A., (2021), The Mothership
• McDonough, S., & Lemon, N. (2021). Stepping into a shared vulnerability
• Smith, E. (2021). Getting ready for new apprenticeship arrangements

Refereed and peer-reviewed journal articles

2026

• Choo, N., Fieger, P., Wells, P., & Tseng, K. (2026). The influence of prior knowledge on the self-efficacy of students enrolled in a tertiary introductory accounting course. Accounting Education, 35(1), 34-58.
• Smith, E. & Walker, A. (forthcoming, 2026). Training for bushfires: Qualification-based training for volunteer firefighters. Australian Journal of Adult Learning.
• Smith, E., South, D. & Foley, A. (forthcoming, 2026) Why and how do people become teachers in the Australian VET sector? Research evidence. Research in Post-Compulsory Education.

2025

• Selkrig, M., McDonough, S., Keamy, R. K., & Brandenburg, R. (2025). Visualizing data to explore the affective and human dimensions of education research. International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727X.2025.2482912 (open access)
• Selkrig, M., Brandenburg, R., McDonough, S., & Keamy, R. K (2025). Inside the game of teacher education: Seeing and sharing the troublesome and delightful dimensions of the field. Teachers and Teaching Journal, 1-17.
• Belton, A., Selkrig, M., McDonough, S., Keamy, R.K, & Brandenburg, R. (2025). Creatively conventional: visualising data to represent the individual and collective voices of teacher educators. Journal of Creative Research Methods, 1(1), 38-54.
• Rice, B., Fieger, P., Martin, N., Raziq, M. M., & Rice, J. (2025). Exploring the Nexus of Organizational Culture and Corruption Reporting: Evidence From the Australian Public Service. Business Ethics, the Environment & Responsibility.
• Rice, B., Raziq, M. M., Martin, N., Rice, J. L., Memon, M., & Fieger, P. (2025). Intrinsic satisfaction and turnover intentions: the moderating roles of collegial and managerial values congruence. Benchmarking: An International Journal, 32(7), 2381-2403.
• Fieger, P., Missen, K., & Allen, L. M. (2025). Exploring the transition: Determinants influencing Australian second-level nurses’ progression to Bachelor of Nursing programs. Nurse Education in Practice, 87, 104437.
• Prayag, G., Aquino, R. S., Hall, C. M., Chen, N., & Fieger, P. (2025). Is Gen Z really that different? Environmental attitudes, travel behaviours and sustainability practices of international tourists to Canterbury, New Zealand. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 33(6), 1016-1037.
• Dyason, D., Ruan, W., Baird, T., & Fieger, P. (2025). The role of public events as a tool for economic recovery in an urban environment. Urban Science, 9(4), 135.
• Fieger, P., Rice, J. L., Prayag, G., & Hall, C. M. (2025). Employment outcomes for Australian tourism and hospitality VET graduates during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 37(1), 102-108.
• Smith, E. (2025). How women are disadvantaged in the Australian apprenticeship system. Economic and Labour Relations Review.
• Smith, E. (2025). From industry training advisory bodies to jobs and skills councils: A contribution to the history of sector skills councils in Australia. International Journal of Vocational Education Studies, 2(2), 53–92.
• Smith, E. (Published online 03 Jul 2025). The oversight of VET teacher-education in Australia. Journal of Vocational Education and Training.
  Smith, E. (2025). Women and apprenticeships – an Australian perspective. Vocation, Technology and Education, Vol 2 (2).
• Smith, E., Smith, A. & Callan, V. (2025). The nature and benefits of partnerships between employers and training providers. Journal of Vocational Education and Training.

2024

• Foley, A., & Ollis, T. (2024). Lifelong learning in Australian community contexts: Adult learning ‘capabilities’ for study, work, and life. Studies in the Education of Adults, 1–19.
• McDonough, S., & Lemon, N. (2024). “Stretched very thin”: The impact of COVID-19 on teachers’ work and lives. Teachers and Teaching.
• McDonough, S., Keamy, R.K., Brandenburg, R., & Selkrig, M. (2024). Making teacher educators’ experiences visible: Seeing inside the hopeful and ambiguous dimensions of practice. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education.
• Fieger, P., & Foley, A. (2024). Perceived personal benefits from study as determinants of student satisfaction in Australian vocational education and training. Education+ Training, 66(9), 1293-1310.
• Fieger, P., & Rice, J. (2024). Graduate pathways following nursing education during COVID-19. Applied Nursing Research, 80, 151864.
• Rice, J., Martin, N., Raziq, M. M., & Fieger, P. (2024). A reconsideration of Jack Welch's managerial legacy. EuroMed Journal of Business.
• Dyason, D., Fieger, P., & Rice, J. (2024). Greened shopping spaces and pedestrian shopping interactions: The case of Christchurch. International Journal of Tourism Cities.
• Smith, E. (2024). Rescue and recovery: The COVID and post-COVID responses of apprenticeship systems. International Review of Applied Economics.
• Smith, E. (2024). The narrative of a VET workforce shortage in Australia: Reality, myth or opportunity? Education + Training.

2023 and earlier

• Ollis, T., & Foley, A. (2023). Reimagining adult learning in community-based contexts: A framework for social justice education in Australia. PRISM.
• Foley, A., Golding, B., & Weadon, H. (2023). Respite, renewal, retirement and tensions: Australian Men’s Sheds and the impact on significant others. Ageing & Society.
• McDonough, S., Brandenburg, R. & Moran, W. (2023). A Study of Teacher Educators’ Work: Complexity and Confrontation. The Educational Forum.
• Lemon, N., & McDonough, S. (2023). “I feel like nothing else will ever be this hard”: The dimensions of teacher resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Educational Forum.
• Fieger, P., Prayag, G., Dyason, D., Rice, J., & Hall, C. M. (2023). Exploring CBD retail performance, recovery and resilience of a smart city following COVID-19. Sustainability.
• Rice, J., Raziq, M. M., Martin, N., Fieger, P., & Rice, B. (2023). The debt crisis and the adoption of Asset-Light and Fee-Orientated (ALFO) arrangements at Marriott. Journal of Tourism, Heritage & Services Marketing.
• Smith, E. & Smith, A. (2023). Informal training and learning in Australian firms: A new perspective. International Journal of Training and Development.
• Smith, E. & Tuck, J. (2023). Do the qualifications of vocational teachers make a difference to their teaching? Research in Post-Compulsory Education.
• Smith, E. (2023). Apprenticeships: The problem of attractiveness and the hindrance of heterogeneity. International Journal of Training and Development.
• McDonough, S., & Lemon, N. (2022). A Gendered Therapeutic Learning Landscape: Responding creatively to a pandemic. Australian Journal of Adult Learning.
• McDonough, S., Foley, A., Weadon, H., & Taylor, R. (2022). Ties that bind or exclude? Knitting and craft groups as contested spaces of inclusion and exclusion. Textile: Cloth and Culture.
• Foley, A., Golding, B., & Weadon, H., (2022). Respite, renewal, retirement and tensions. Ageing & Society.
• Carragher, L., Golding, B. & Foley, A. (2022). Shedding Light: A qualitative study. Health and Social Care.
• Foley, A., Weadon, H., McDonough, S & Taylor, R. (2022), A Gendered Therapeutic landscape. Australian Journal of Adult Learning.
• Smith E. (2022). Protecting us from the pandemic? Labour and Industry.
• Smith, E. (2022). Expanding or restricting access to tertiary education? Research in Post-Compulsory Education.
• Prayag, G., Ozanne, L. K., Martin-Neuninger, R., & Fieger, P. (2022). Integrating MLP and ‘after ANT’. Current Issues in Tourism.
• Prayag, G., & Fieger, P. (2022). Freedom camping. Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing.
• Rice, B., Martin, N., Fieger, P., & Hussain, T. (2022). Older healthcare workers' satisfaction. Employee Relations.
• Dyason, D., Fieger, P., Prayag, G., & Hall, C. M. (2022). The triple blow effect. Sustainability.
• Golding, B., Carragher, L., & Foley, A. (2021), The Women’s Shed Movement. Australian Journal of Adult Learning.
• Hall, C. M., Fieger, P., Prayag, G., & Dyason, D. (2021). Panic buying and consumption displacement. Economies.
• Fieger, P., Prayag, G., Hall, C. M., Rice, J., & Gössling, S. (2021). When staying long enough is enough?. Annals of Tourism Research.
• Hall, M. C., Prayag, G., Fieger, P., & Dyason, D. (2021). Beyond panic buying. Journal of service management.
• Dyason, D., Fieger, P., & Rice, J. (2021). Assessing the labour market response. Australasian Journal of Regional Studies.
• Dyason, D., & Fieger, P. (2021). Successful visitor market transition. RE-IMAGINING MANAGEMENT RESEARCH.
• Dyason, D., Fieger, P., & Rossouw, R. (2021). Covid-19 and retail displacement. Australasian Journal of Regional Studies.
• Smith, E. (2021). The expansion and contraction of the apprenticeship system. Journal of Vocational Education and Training.
• Golding, B., Foley., A & Weadon, H., (2020). Community learning through adversity and disaster. Australian Journal of Adult Learning.
• Jin, A., Foley, A., & Cooley, D., (2020). Participant Chinese teacher and student perceptions. Intercultural Education.
• Smith, E. (2020). Afterword: A fresh look at workplace learning for VET teachers. International Journal of Training Research.
• Barratt-Pugh, L., Hodge, S., & Smith, E. (2020). Learning and development practitioners. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources.
• Golding, B. & Harvey, J. (2019) ’50 Years of AONTAS. The Adult Learner.
• Smith, E., Callan, V., Tuck, J. & Smith, A. (2019). Employer training in Australia. International Journal of Training and Development.
• Smith, E. (2019). Apprenticeships and ‘future work’: Are we ready? International Journal of Training and Development.

Reports and research outputs

2025

• Edwards, S., Kennedy, G., Debney, B., Frost-Camilleri, L., Dowling, M., Thorpe, K., (2025). Neurodiversity, Success and Inclusion at Federation University survey: Descriptive Results. Federation University Australia. Report. https://doi.org/10.25955/28300937.v2
• Edwards, S., Kennedy, G., Dowling, M., Frost-Camilleri, L., Thorpe, K., de Gracia, R., (2025). Barriers to diagnostic disclosure amongst rural and regional higher education students. Federation University Australia. Presentation. https://doi.org/10.25955/28301078.v1

2024

• Smith, E. & Somers, P. (2024). The role of industry in VET. Report submitted to the Victorian Skills Authority and the Australasian VET Research Association, January 2024. https://avetra.org.au/VSA-Project-2  DOI:  10.13140/RG.2.2.15075.98083
• Smith, E., Callan, V., Robinson, R, Smith, A. & Snell, D. (2024). Careers in everyday industries: Potential benefits of increased visibility. Report for the National Careers Institute, Department of Employment and Workplace Relations.  DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13707.20006
• Edwards, S., Kennedy, G., Debney, B., Frost-Camilleri, L., Dowling, M., Thorpe, K., (2024). Supporting Neurodivergent (ND) students in Higher Education: Survey Results. Federation University Australia. Figure. https://doi.org/10.25955/28005236.v2
• Edwards, S.L., Bolton, S-L., Flinter, A., Thorpe, K., Frost-Camilleri, L., Sawyer, N. & Kennedy, G.A. (2024). Prior education, life-contact and knowledge of autism amongst non-autistic students in higher education (Version 1.0) [Data set]. Figshare. https://doi.org/10.25955/25950604.v1
• Edwards, S.L., Thorpe, K., Frost-Camilleri, L., Sawyer, N., & Kennedy, G. A. (2024). How do autistic students rate strategies for social inclusion at university? (Version 1.0) [Data set]. Figshare. https://doi.org/10.25955/25928812.v1

2023 and earlier

• Smith, E. (2022). Improving the attractiveness and social perception of apprenticeships. Geneva: ILO. https://www.ilo.org/skills/projects/adult/WCMS_861713/lang--en/index.htm
• Smith, E. (2022) Landmarks in the Australian apprenticeship and traineeship system. Online, National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER). https://www.voced.edu.au/vet-knowledge-bank-landmark-documents-apprenticeships-and-traineeships-historical-overview
• Smith, E. (2020). The VET teaching workforce in Australia, Research report for the Korea Research Institute for VET (KRIVET) (UNESCO-UNEVOC Centre).
• Smith, E. & Foley, A. (2019). Young futures: Education, training and employment decision-making in non-metropolitan areas. Report submitted to the Victorian Department of Education and Training, Victoria. September.
• Smith, E. (2019). Intermediary organizations in apprenticeship systems. Geneva: International Labour Organization.  https://www.ilo.org/skills/pubs/WCMS_725504/lang--en/index.htm ISBN: 978-92-2-133941-0