Final stages of a PhD

Fluency refers to the ‘flow’ of your thesis. There are several aspects to this, as follows.

• Chapter fluency: Do the chapters form a linear progression towards establishing a case for your thesis, or do they sit uneasily together? If you write the main ideas in each chapter down on a card (one per chapter), do the cards display a logical progression? Could someone uninformed about your thesis see the logical flow?
• Paragraph fluency: Do the paragraphs reinforce and contribute to the conclusion you are making? Are any paragraphs jarring or inconsistent with what you say in other paragraphs?
• Sentence-level fluency: Do the sentences hang together? Do you make your case in a topic sentence, then provide supporting evidence for it in supporting sentences? Do you use linking words and transition signals to guide the reader from point to point across your sentences?
• Argument fluency: Beyond this, do your arguments flow? Do you support your contentions with plausible premises? Do they build on each other such that your minor arguments are building towards your major arguments? If unsure, learn more about mapping an argument.

These are questions you can ask yourself during the editing process. Read on for more about this important stage of finishing your thesis. 

Editing

Editing is different from proofreading. Editing your thesis means to read forwards from start to finish looking for coherence of argument, connections between chapters, paragraph structure and fluency of expression. In looking for these things, you are looking for clarity of expression as well as correcting any large mistakes. It also means ensuring proper layout and formatting of the thesis.

Proofreading

Proofreading is looking for any errors that escaped the editing process. You don’t want errors to creep in between the penultimate draft and the final draft, so leave proofreading until then.

One should edit forwards and proofread backwards. When editing, read as you normally would when looking for any errors; when proofreading, read from the back of the thesis line by line to the start, looking at every sentence on its own—this will ensure your eye does not ‘skip’ over mistakes which you would do reading forwards.

Another option is to listen to your thesis using software such as the Read Aloud function in Microsoft Word, for example.

Paying for a proofreader is highly recommended. Ask your supervisor if there is funding available to support this option.

As there are many things to consider when editing, adopting a strategy of macroediting and microediting can help ensure you don’t miss anything. This strategy moves from the general to the specific.

Editing and Proofreading 1: Macroediting

• Layout of main text: View each page singly. Check for typesetting: are all the paragraphs indented by the same amount? Are paragraphs which follow on conceptually from a quotation, or heading, not indented? Are the margins OK? Is the text justified? Is spacing between words consistent? Is spacing between sections consistent? Is page numbering sequential and in the correct font? Is the header and footer consistent throughout? Does the layout have ‘orphans’ or ‘widows’ (i.e., single words appearing at the top of bottom of the page)?
• Layout of title page: Is all relevant information there in the right order? Does it have no page number (title pages are unnumbered but still count in the pagination)? Are the numbers centred? Does your name and discipline appear in the correct form? It should contain the words: Thesis submitted for the degree of [name of degree] as well as your institution and any other School or discipline-specific information needed.
• Layout of preliminary pages: Check the Table of Contents, List of Tables and Figures. Are items correctly formatted and accurately?
• Layout of bibliography: Are all the references there? (Cross check them with the in-text references.) Is the layout the same as given in the university’s or your discipline’s style manual? Is the punctuation correct? Is the layout in strict alphabetical order?
• Layout of tables and graphs: Are these in the right place, i.e., close to the text where they are mentioned? Are they labelled correctly with the source? Is a caption provided for all tables and figures, and is it accurate in terms of explaining the table/graph/figure? Are tables, graphs and figures listed in the List of Tables and Figures section that is in your preliminary pages? Double-check any mathematical notation for accuracy throughout the thesis.
• Edit references in text: Check accuracy and spelling of all citations and reference details with the original source. Check that the ellipses (…) are used correctly in in-text citations. Check that the reference style is consistent throughout. Check that quotation marks are used consistently and that you have not over-quoted or misquoted. Ensure pagination for quotations is accurate.
• Edit the bibliography: Make sure that the full reference details are given according to the referencing style: full name(s), titles, publisher and place of publication (only the former if APA7), editor(s) if applicable, year of publication, volume numbers, edition numbers if applicable, inclusive page numbers (for journals) or book chapters. Check the details against the FedCite examples online.
• Edit fonts: Check usage of all bolds, underlined and italicised passages for consistency. Are the titles and sub-titles consistently formatted and in the correct style? Make sure you haven’t overused italics or bold text throughout the main text. When overused, this can be irritating for the reader.

Editing and Proofreading 2: Microediting

Once macroediting is complete, pay attention to text meaning and paragraph cohesion and read individual sentences closely. Following are some of the things to consider when microediting.

• Edit for purpose and logical development: Check each chapter introduction and conclusion. Do you do what you say you are going to do? Does the “thesis” or argument of your chapter come through in each chapter/section? Is the research gap clear in the introduction? Is the research question (or hypothesis) clearly articulated and unambiguous? Do you summarise the point(s) in the conclusion? Have you made a case for the importance of your thesis to wider scholarship in your field?
• Edit for cohesion: Check the links between paragraphs. Does the material “flow” from one to another? Do you have a topic sentence in each paragraph? Are you using ‘signposting’ language, and logical connector words to guide the reader? For example, “Given this point …”; “First …”; “Second …”; “Third …”; “In conclusion …” Do you use subsections, numbered points? Are these consistent and accurately cross-referenced throughout?
• Edit for sense: Make sure that each sentence is meaningfully clear and precise. Is it saying exactly what you want it to say or is it ambiguous or vague? Look out for redundancies, (“absolutely perfect”, “completely surrounded”, “serious crisis”); tautologies (“A comparative study covering both aspects” , “At 2pm this afternoon”); empty expressions or “waffle” (“in terms of”, “reflected in”, “in regards to”); and vague words (“factor” , “significant” “aspect” ) or empty modifiers (“huge”, “very” ). Using the word ‘significant’ without telling the reader how and why it is significant is hollow talk.
• Edit for repetition: Check all chapters for unnecessary repetition of concepts and ideas and arguments. Repetition and ambiguity are evidence of careless writing, and insufficient research and/or support for your ideas. Keep the arguments for your points tight and build evidence for them rather than repeating what you said before.
• Edit for ambiguity: Check for sentences that can mean different things. Ambiguity is evidence of sloppy thinking. Examiners will be sensitive to it.
• Edit for acronyms and jargon: Ensure you have explained acronyms and jargon clearly when first used. This includes writing the term out in full the first time you refer to it and including the acronym in brackets directly afterwards, as in this example, ‘World Health Organisation (WHO)’. 
• Edit for grammatical errors: The common errors are compounding nouns; lack of subject or verb in a sentence; noun-verb agreement errors; split infinitives; plural-singular verb mistakes; tense errors; pronoun-noun agreement; misplacement of modifying verb; apostrophe usage in possessive expressions. See an advanced English language grammar book for explanation of these terms if they are unfamiliar.
• Edit for spelling: Use a spell checker but remember its limitations (see “Pome” below) - the spell checker thinks it is fine! A spell checker is no substitute for careful editing and proofreading.

Spell Chequer Pome
I have a spelling checker, 
It came with my P.C.
It clearly marks for my revue
Mistakes I cannot sea.
I’ve run this poem threw it
And I’m shore your please to no
Its letter perfect in its weight
My chequer tolled me sew.                                       

• Edit for punctuation: Don’t use commas, full-stops, semi-colons and colons indiscriminately. They often make the difference between meaningful and meaningless. Examiners will be sensitive to careless use of punctuation.
  
  Compare:
  ‘A woman without her man is nothing.’
  with:
  ‘A woman: without her, man is nothing.’

Proofreading the thesis is vital and you should allow time to do it well. Allowing several months for this task is not unusual. It should happen at the penultimate draft of your thesis, i.e., the version just before the final copy, as you don’t want small errors creeping in while you are making changes at the editing stage.

You can, of course, proofread the thesis yourself. You know your work best. But it is often best to outsource this stage to an expert, or at least someone you trust will do a good job. If you edited the thesis yourself there will still be a number of errors and mistakes. Proofreading is the stage where these errors are picked up and corrected. If you are from a non-English speaking background, it is essential to engage a proofreader.

The things to look for at the proofreading stage are numerous. But the key aim of proofreading is not looking for the fluency of ideas, argument or thesis structure, or for accuracy in terms of cross-referencing of concepts and ideas within the thesis. Nor are you checking for accuracy of presentation, e.g., of data or evidence. All that should have been fixed at the editing stage. At the proofreading stage you are looking for things that escaped the editing process.

Professional proofreaders are available for a fee and your School may provide a small allowance to assist in paying for proofreading. It’s important to select a proofreader wisely as it is a vital job: A good proofreader will draw attention to clarity of expression, inaccuracies, inconsistencies and repetition, and of course any residual mistakes. They help polish the thesis and ensure it is the best it can be.

Finding a proofreader

Finding a proofreader is important when you have got to the stage of having a complete, closely edited, penultimate draft. You then proofread the thesis carefully (see Proofreading above). However, no matter how well you proofread your own thesis, someone with an independent critical eye will be able to find more mistakes. Often several independent proofreaders will find different mistakes! It is not necessary to have more than one proofreader, but you certainly need the services of one good one. How do you find that person?

The YellowPages have lists of professional proofreaders, so do websites like AirTasker, Bark.com and Upwork. There are also companies that do this work. Some proofreaders are better than others, of course, and some have a discipline-specific experience around your thesis. A person who has a background in your area would be good, but don’t assume a non-specialist can’t be a good proofreader. After all, they are only looking for errors that have escaped the editing process. They might well have a better eye for detail than a specialist who might get seduced into reading the thesis for interest!

When choosing a proofreader, use due diligence and be guided by:

• Previous experience: Have they completed other doctoral proofreading jobs in time, and on budget? Are people happy with their work?
• Timeliness: Will they commit to completing the work on time?
• Qualifications: Do they have a higher degree themselves? (This is not essential, but it helps as they know the process and level of detail required.) Do they have qualifications in editing and proofreading? Are they members of the Institute of Professional Editors?
• Recommendations: Take recommendations from your supervisor(s), colleagues, and previous doctoral students as a strong guide. Sometimes your department will strongly mandate the use of a particular proofreader as they have worked with them in the past.

It is particularly important that international students for whom English is not a first language seek the input of a proofreader. However, as there are university rules around the contributions made by an editor, ensure that their work does not amount to ghostwriting (when a substantial part of the thesis is the work of another person). The thesis must be your work.

When preparing the thesis for submission, ensure that everything is complete: the preliminary front matter pages, the body of the thesis, and the back matter documentation. It is easier to compile the thesis if you use the Master and sub-documents function in Word. This allows you to navigate between sections of the entire thesis, ensure cross-referencing is adequate, and to build a Table of Contents for the entire thesis. It also allows compilation of an Index (that is not required for doctoral theses, but necessary if you plan to publish your thesis as a book).

The front matter comprises, in the following order:

• Title page
• Declaration
• Acknowledgements
• Table of Contents
• List of Figures and Tables (if appropriate)

The Body includes:

• Introduction
• The main chapters
• Conclusion

The Back matter includes:

• Reference List
• Appendices (if appropriate)

Check to ensure that styles are consistent within your thesis, and cross-referencing is accurate. This should be done in the editing stage.

Once the thesis is complete, it requires binding. Check with your supervisor whether that is soft or hard binding, also.